A Brief History of Rome: From Empire to Eternal City

Rome isn’t just a city; it’s a living palimpsest, where every layer tells a story stretching back nearly three millennia. Walking its streets, you literally tread upon the foundations of empires, republics, and holy states. Understanding this layered history helps you appreciate the profound significance of its ruins, churches, and bustling piazzas.

Consider enhancing your journey with walking history tours or a comprehensive audio guide to truly bring these eras to life as you explore. A Rome museum pass can also offer invaluable access to the artifacts that tell these stories.

A Brief History of Rome: From Empire to Eternal City

1. The Mythical Founding & Early Kingdom (c. 753 BCE – 509 BCE)

Our story begins with legend. Rome is said to have been founded on April 21, 753 BCE, by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, sons of the god Mars, who were suckled by a she-wolf. Romulus eventually killed Remus and established the city on the Palatine Hill. While mythical, this origin story grounds Rome in divine favor and fraternal struggle.

During this early period, Rome was a monarchy ruled by seven kings, eventually expanding its influence over neighboring Latin tribes. Though archaeological evidence is sparse, the groundwork for Rome’s future power was laid, including basic civic structures and religious practices.

2. The Roman Republic (509 BCE – 27 BCE)

Tired of tyrannical kings, the Romans overthrew the monarchy and established a Republic. This era saw the development of Rome’s complex political system, with elected magistrates (like consuls), the Senate, and assemblies that gradually gave more power to the common people (plebeians) over the aristocracy (patricians).

This was a period of relentless expansion. Through military might and clever diplomacy, Rome conquered the Italian peninsula, then defeated powerful rivals like Carthage (in the Punic Wars, personified by Hannibal) and gradually came to dominate the entire Mediterranean world. Figures like Julius Caesar rose to prominence, their ambition and military genius pushing the Republic to its limits, ultimately leading to its demise. The Roman Forum today largely represents the public life and grandiosity of the Republic.

3. The Roman Empire (27 BCE – 476 CE)

The Republic’s internal conflicts paved the way for the rise of the emperors. Augustus (Octavian), Julius Caesar’s adopted son, effectively became the first Roman Emperor, ushering in the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) – a period of unparalleled stability and prosperity lasting for two centuries. The Empire reached its territorial peak, stretching from Britain to the Middle East.

This was the age of monumental construction: the Colosseum, the Pantheon, vast aqueducts, and magnificent forums (like Trajan’s and Augustus’). Roman law, engineering, and culture spread across the known world, leaving an indelible mark. Christianity also emerged and spread throughout the Empire, eventually becoming the dominant religion.

However, internal strife, economic decline, and external pressures (barbarian invasions) gradually chipped away at the Empire’s strength. In 313 CE, Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity, and later moved the capital to Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire officially fell in 476 CE, marking the end of classical antiquity.

4. The Dark Ages & Early Middle Ages (c. 5th Century – 10th Century CE)

With the fall of the Western Empire, Rome entered a period of decline. Its population dwindled, grand buildings fell into disrepair, and it became a mere shadow of its former self. However, the Bishop of Rome (the Pope) began to assert political and spiritual authority, becoming a crucial figure in the burgeoning Christian world. The city survived as a spiritual center, even as its temporal power waned.

5. The Papal States & Renaissance Rome (c. 8th Century – 1870 CE)

From the 8th century, the Popes solidified their temporal power, establishing the Papal States – a vast territory in central Italy over which they ruled as monarchs. This period saw Rome’s spiritual authority grow immensely, becoming the undisputed center of the Catholic Church.

The Renaissance (15th-16th centuries) and Baroque (17th century) periods brought a rebirth of artistic and architectural glory to Rome. Popes became great patrons of the arts, commissioning masterpieces from Michelangelo (Sistine Chapel, St. Peter’s Basilica), Raphael (Vatican frescoes), and Bernini (Fountain of Four Rivers, St. Peter’s Square). Many of Rome’s most beautiful churches, fountains, and palaces date from this era, transforming the city into a magnificent spiritual capital. The Vatican City became the heart of papal power.

6. Modern Rome: Capital of United Italy (1870 CE – Present)

The 19th century brought the Risorgimento, the movement for Italian unification. In 1870, Rome was finally captured by Italian forces, becoming the capital of the newly formed Kingdom of Italy. This marked the end of the Papal States’ temporal rule, though the Vatican City remained an independent state.

The 20th century saw Rome undergo significant urban development, particularly during the Fascist era, with new avenues and monumental architecture. After World War II, Italy became a Republic, and Rome continued its role as the vibrant capital, embracing its historical layers while evolving into a modern European metropolis.

Today, as you wander through Rome, you’ll see echoes of all these eras: the massive stones of the Forum, the soaring dome of the Pantheon, the intricate beauty of the Trevi Fountain, the grandeur of St. Peter’s Basilica, and the lively energy of a modern city built upon millennia of dreams, power, and faith. It truly is the “Eternal City.”